Ero sivun ”Omega-3 rasvahapot” versioiden välillä

Versio 18. joulukuuta 2013 kello 18.20

Yleistä tietoa

Omega 3-rasvahapot ovat monityydyttymättämiä välttämättömiä rasvahappoja, kuten alfalinoleenihappo (ALA), jota on runsaasti rypsiöljyssä, pellavansiemenissä ja saksanpähkinöissä sekä eikosapentaeenihappo (EPA) ja dokosaheksaeenihappo (DHA), joita on runsaasti kalassa.

Omega-3 rasvahappoja on mm. kaloissa.

Vaikuttavat aineet

Elimistö muuttaa alfalinoleenihappoa muiksi rasvahapoiksi eli eikosapentaeenihapoksi ja (EPA) ja dokosaheksaeenihapoksi (DHA), joita saadaan valmiina myös kalasta. Alfalinoleenihapon pidentyminen DHA:ksi elimistössä on vähäistä etenkin jos omega-6 rasvahapon saanti (runsaasti kasviöljyissä) on suurta (kuten useimmilla suomalaisilla on). Elimistö käyttää samaa entsyymiä omega-6 rasvahappojen muokkaamiseen kuin EPA:n muodostamiseen ja runsas omega-6 rasvahappojen määrä "varaa" tämän etsyymiprosessin käyttöönsä.

Vaikutus ja käyttö

Välttämättömät rasvahapot ja niistä edelleen muodostuneet pidempiketjuiset rasvahapot ovat solukalvojen fosfolipidien rakennusaineita. Dokosaheksaeenihappoa tarvitaan hermoston kehitykseen ja toimintaan sekä näön tarkkuuden ylläpitoon. Eikosapentaeenihaposta muodostetaan elimistön välittäjäaineita mm. leukotrieenejä, prostaglandiineja ja tromboksaaneja. Nämä välittäjäaineet osallistuvat moniin elimistön säätelyprosesseihin, kuten vastustuskyvyn, verenpaineen, kehon lämpotilan ja hermoston toiminnan säätely sekä hyytymien muodostuminen ja tahdosta riippumattomien lihasten supistuminen. Omega-3 rasvahapoista muodostunut EPA on vaikutukseltaan aina joko suotuisa tai neutraali. Omega-6 rasvahaposta muodotuneen EPA:n vaikutus voi olla elimistölle haitallinenkin tietyissä tilanteissa. Omega-3 EPA ehkäisee verihyytymien muodostumista ja tulehdusreaktioita. Suuri omega-6 rasvahappojen saanti suhteessa vähäiseen omega-3 saantiin liittyy elintapasairauksien, sydän- ja verisuonitautien, diabeteksen ja allergioiden kehittymiseen.

Omega-3 rasvahappoja, erityisesti kalaöljyn DHA:ta ja EPA:a, käytetään tutkimustiedon perusteella:

Korkeiden triglyseridiarvojen alentamiseen (korkeat triglyseridiarvot liittyvät sydänsairauksiin ja diabetekseen).

Sydän- ja verisuonirairauksien ehkäisyssä ja jo sairastuneiden ennusteen paranemisessa.

Kalaöljy näyttää alentavan korkeaa verenpainetta laajentamalla verisuonia.

Nivelreuma. Kalaöljy näyttää vähentävän nivelten jäykkyyttä ja vähentäväm steroideihin kuulumattomien tulehduskipulääkkeiden (NSAID) tarvetta.

Kuukautiskivut: Kalaöljyn yksin tai yhdessä B12-vitamiinin kanssa vähentää kipuja ja kipulääkkeiden tarvetta.

Tarkkaavaisuus-ylivilkkaushäiriö (ADHD) lapsilla. Kalaöljy näyttää parantavan älyllisiä taitoja ja käyttäytymistä 8-12 vuotiailla ADHD-lapsilla.

Raynaud'n oireyhtymä. Kalaöljy voi parantaa kylmänsietokykyä.

Aivohalvaus. Rasvaisen kalan syönti kerran tai kahdesti viikossa näyttää alentavan aivohalvauksen riskiä peräti 27 %. Toisaalta, erittäin korkea kalan kulutus (yli 46 grammaa kalaa päivässä) näyttää lisäävän aivohalvauksen riskiä.

Luiden haurastuminen (osteoporoosi). Kalaöljy yksin tai yhdessä kalsiumin ja helokkiöljyn kanssa näyttää hidastavan luukatoa iäkkäillä.

Valtimoiden kovettuminen (ateroskleroosi). Kalaöljy näyttää hidastavan tai jopa vähentävän sydänvaltimoiden ateroskleroosia (sepelvaltimotauti).

Munuaisvaivoja. Pitkäaikainen käyttö (kaksi vuotta) kalaöljyä 4-8 grammaa päivässä voi hidastaamunuaisten toiminnan menetys korkean riskin potilailla, joilla onmunuaissairaus nimeltään IgA nefropatia. Kalaöljy myös näyttää vähentävän proteiinin määrä virtsassa ihmisiä, joilla on munuaissairaus seurauksena diabetes.

Kaksisuuntainen mielialahäiriö. Kalaöljyn tavallista hoitoja kaksisuuntainen mielialahäiriö tuntuu parantaa masennusoireita ja lisätävälinen aika masennusjaksoja. Mutta kalaöljy ei näytä parantaa maanisia oireita ihmisiä, joilla on kaksisuuntainen mielialahäiriö.

Psykoosi. Kalaöljylisä voi auttaa estämään psykoottisen sairauden puhkeamisen lievästi oireilevilla nuorilla 25-vuoteen asti.

Laihtuminen. Kalan syöminen tehostaa laihtumista ja alentaa verensokeria ylipainoisilla verenpainetautia sairastavilla.

Kohdun limakalvon syöpä. Säännöllisesti noin kaksi annosta rasvaista kalaa viikossa syövillä on alentunut riski sairastua kohdun limakalvon syöpään.

Ikääntymiseen liittyvä silmänpohjan rappeuma (AMD). Ihmisillä, jotka syövät kalaa enemmän kuin kerran viikossa on alentunut riski sairastua ikään liittyvään silmänpohjan rappeumaan.

Vähentää verisuonten uudelleen tukkeutumista sydämen ohitusleikkauksen tai pallolaajennuksen jälkeen. Teho saadaan kun käyttö aloitetaan kuukausi ennen toimenpidettä ja jatketaan vähintään kuukausi toimenpiteen jälkeen.

Keskenmenon ehkäisy raskaana olevilla naisilla, joilla on fosfolipidivasta-ainesyndrooma.

Elinsiirtojen jälkeisen lääkityksen aiheuttaman munuaisvaurion ja korkean verenpainen ehkäisy.

Dyspraksian (motoristen toimintojen koordinaatiohäiriö, jossa vaikea suorittaa tahdonalaisia liikkeitä) ja koordinaatiokyvyn ongelmien hoito.

Hemodialyysistä johtuvien hytymien ehkäisy.

Psoriasis. Sairaalassa annetta suonensisäinen kalaöljyhoito saattaa vähentää vaikean psoriaasin oireita. Ravinnon kalaölyllä ei ole samaa vaikutusta psoriaatikoilla..

Korkea kolesteroli. Kalaöljy voi alentaa kolesterolitasoa alentamalla kolesterolin imeytymistä suolesta.

Syöpään liittyvä laihtuminen. Suuret annokset (7,5 grammaa päivässä) kalaöljyä näyttää hidastuvan laihtumista osalla potilaista. Jotkut tutkijat uskovat näiden potilaiden syövän enemmän, koska kalaöljy vähentää masennusta ja parantaa mielialaa.

Astma. Äidin kalaöljyn saanti raskauden aikana voi alentaa astman esiitymistä lapsilla. Kalaöljy voi vähentää lasten astman oireilua.

Kalaöljyn omega-3 rasvahappojen hyödystä on saatu viitteitä lukuisissa muissakin tilanteissa, mutta tieteellistä arvioita ei voi vielä tehdä tutkimusianeiston vähäisyyden vuoksi. Tällaisia tiloja ovat:

Allergiat, Alzheimerin tauti, atooppinen ihottuma, eteisvärinä, masennus, silmien kuivuminen, syövät, kaihi, älyllinen suoriutuminen, lukihäiriö, Crohnin tauti, haavainen paksunsuolentulehdus, krooninen väsymysoireyhtymä (CFS), krooninen munuaissairaus, diabetes, skitsofrenia raskauden aikana, sikiön kehitys, ennenaikainen syntymä, salisylaaatiyliherkkyys, systeeminen lupus erythematosus (SLE), kammioarytmiat ja lasten hämäränäön parantaminen lukihäiriön yhteydessä.

Käytössä huomioitavaa

Saantisuositus: Omega-3-rasvahappoja tulisi saada vähintään 1% ravinnon kokonaisenergiasta. Naisille tämä tarkoittaa keskimäärin 2200 mg Omega-3 rasvahappoja (2000 kcal:n ruokavalio) ja miehille 3300 mg Omega-3 rasvahappoja (3000 kcal:n ruokavalio) päivittäin. EPA:a ja DHA:ta arvioidaan tarvittavan 200-500 mg/vrk.

Lisätietoa

Eniten omega-3 rasvahappoja sisältävät ruuat (Fineli):http://bot.fi/c9v

Tieteellisten artikkelien lyhennelmiä voi lukea PubMed:ssa http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed

Lähteet

1. Adler A, Holub BJ. Effect of garlic and fish-oil supplementation on serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in hypercholesterolemic men. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65:445-50.
2. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Lipids and Glycemic Control in Type II Diabetes and the Metabolic Syndrome and on Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Renal Disease, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, and Osteoporosis. AHRQ Publication No. 04-E012-1; 2004. Available at: http://www.ahcpr.gov/clinic/epcsums/o3lipidsum.htm.
3. Akedo I, Ishikawa H, Nakamura T, et al. Three cases with familial adenomatous polyposis diagnosed as having malignant lesions in the course of a long-term trial using docosahexanoic acid (DHA)-concentrated fish oil capsules (abstract). Jpn J Clin Oncol 1998;28:762-5.
4. Albert C. Fish oil--an appetising alternative to anti-arrhythmic drugs? Lancet 2004;363:1412-3.
5. Allard JP, Kurian R, Aghdassi E, Muggli R, et al. Lipid peroxidation during n-3 fatty acid and vitamin E supplementation in humans. Lipids 1997;32:535-41.
6. Amminger GP, Schafer MR, Papageorgiou K, et al. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids for indicated prevention of psychotic disorders: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010;67:146-54.
7. Andrioli G, Carletto A, Guarini P, et al. Differential effects of dietary supplementation with fish oil or soy lecithin on human platelet adhesion. Thromb Haemost 1999;82:1522-7.
8. Angerer P, Kothny W, Stork S, von Schacky C. Effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids on progression of atherosclerosis in carotid arteries. Cardiovasc Res 2002;54:183-90.
9. Anon. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Soprawivenza nell'Infarto miocardico. Lancet 1999;354:447-55.
10. Balk EM, Lichtenstein AH, Chung M, et al. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on serum markers of cardiovascular disease risk: a systematic review. Atherosclerosis 2006;189:19-30.
11. Barber MD, Ross JA, Voss AC, et al. The effect of an oral nutritional supplement enriched with fish oil on weight-loss in patients with pancreatic cancer. (abstract) Br J Cancer 1999;81:80-6.
12. Barberger-Gateau P, Letenneur L, Deschamps V, et al. Fish, meat, and risk of dementia: cohort study. BMJ 2002;325:932-3.
13. Belluzzi A, Boschi S, Brignola C, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:339S-42S.
14. Belluzzi A, Brignola C, Campieri M, et al. Effect of an enteric-coated fish-oil preparation on relapses in Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1557-60.
15. Bender NK, Kraynak MA, Chiquette E, et al. Effects of marine fish oils on the anticoagulation status of patients receiving chronic warfarin therapy. J Thromb Thrombolysis 1998;5:257-61.
16. Beydoun MA, Kaufman JS, Satia JA, et al. Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85:1103-11.
17. Brasky TM, Lampe JW, Potter JD, et al. Specialty supplements and breast cancer risk in the VITamins And Lifestyle (VITAL) cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2010;19:1696-708.
18. Brouwer IA, Zock PL, Camm AJ, et al; SOFA Study Group. Effect of fish oil on ventricular tachyarrhythmia and death in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators: the Study on Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Ventricular Arrhythmia (SOFA) randomized trial. JAMA 2006;295:2613-9.
19. Buckley M, Goff A, Knapp W. Fish oil interaction with warfarin. Ann Pharmacother 2004;38:50-2.
20. Bulstra-Ramakers MT, Huisjes HJ, Visser GH. The effects of 3g eicosapentaenoic acid daily on recurrence of intrauterine growth retardation and pregnancy induced hypertension. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:123-6.
21. Burgess JR, Stevens L, Zhang W, Peck L. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (abstract). Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:327S-30S.
22. Burns CP, Halabi S, Clamon G, et al. Phase II study of high-dose fish oil capsules for patients with cancer-related cachexia. Cancer 2004;101:370-8.
23. Burr ML, Ashfield-Watt PA, Dunstan FD, et al. Lack of benefit of dietary advice to men with angina: results of a controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003;57:193-200.
24. Caicoya M. Fish consumption and stroke: a community case-control study in Asturias, Spain. Neuroepidemiology 2002;21:107-14.
25. Cairns JA, Gill J, Morton B, et al. Fish oils and low-molecular-weight heparin for the reduction of restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. The EMPAR Study. Circulation 1996;94:1553-60.
26. Calder PC. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity: pouring oil on troubled waters or another fishy tale? Nutr Res 2001;21:309-41.
27. Calo L, Bianconi L, Colivicchi F, et al. N-3 Fatty acids for the prevention of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass surgery: a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;45:1723-8.
28. Campan P, Planchand PO, Duran D. Pilot study on n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of human experimental gingivitis. J Clin Periodontol 1997;24:907-13.
29. Chavarro JE, Stampfer MJ, Li H, et al. A prospective study of polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in blood and prostate cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007;16:1364-70.
30. Christensen JH, Skou HA, Fog L, et al. Marine n-3 fatty acids, wine intake, and heart rate variability in patients referred for coronary angiography. Circulation 2001;103:651-7.
31. Connor WE, Connor SL. The importance of fish and docosahexaenoic acid in Alzheimer disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85:929-30.
32. Curtis CL, Hughes CE, Flannery CR, et al. n-3 fatty acids specifically modulate catabolic factors involved in articular cartilage degradation. J Biol Chem 2000;275:721-4.
33. D'Almeida A, Carter JP, Anatol A, Prost C. Effects of a combination of evening primrose oil (gamma linolenic acid) and fish oil (eicosapentaenoic + docahexaenoic acid) versus magnesium, and versus placebo in preventing pre-eclampsia. Women Health 1992;19:117-31.
34. Dallongeville J, Yarnell J, Ducimetiere P, et al. Fish consumption is associated with lower heart rates. Circulation 2003;108:820-5.
35. Davidson M, Marwah A, Sawchuk RJ, et al. Safety and pharmacokinetic study with escalating doses of 3-acetyl-7-oxo-dehydroepiandrosterone in healthy male volunteers. Clin Invest Med 2000;23:300-10.
36. Deutch B, Jorgensen EB, Hansen JC. Menstrual discomfort in Danish women reduced by dietary supplements of omega-3 PUFA and B12 (fish oil or seal oil capsules). Nutr Res 2000;20:621-31.
37. Dewailly E, Blanchet C, Gingras S, et al. Relations between n-3 fatty acid status and cardiovascular disease risk factors among Quebecers. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:603-11.
38. Dewailly E, Blanchet C, Lemieux S, et al. n-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease risk factors among the Inuit of Nunavik. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:464-73.
39. DiGiacomo RA, Kremer JM, Shah DM. Fish-oil dietary supplementation in patients with Raynaud's phenomenon: a double-blind, controlled, prospective study. Am J Med 1989;86:158-64.
40. Din JN, Newby DE, Flapan AD. Omega 3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease--fishing for a natural treatment. BMJ 2004;328:30-5.
41. Djoussé L, Akinkuolie AO, Wu JH, et al. Fish consumption, omega-3 fatty acids and risk of heart failure: A meta-analysis. Clin Nutr 2012 Jun 6. [Epub ahead of print].
42. Donadio JV, Grande JP. The role of fish oil/omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of IgA nephropathy. Semin Nephrol 2004;24:225-43.
43. Duffy EM, Meenagh GK, McMillan SA, et al. The clinical effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 fish oils and/or copper in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 2004;31:1551-6.
44. Dunstan JA, Mori TA, Barden A et al. Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal allergen-specific immune responses and clinical outcomes in infants at high risk of atopy: a randomized, controlled trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;112:1178-84.
45. Dunstan JA, Mori TA, Barden A, et al. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on maternal and fetal erythrocyte fatty acid composition. Eur J Clin Nutr 2004;58:429-37.
46. Dunstan JA, Roper J, Mitoulas L, et al. The effect of supplementation with fish oil during pregnancy on breast milk immunoglobulin A, soluble CD14, cytokine levels and fatty acid composition. Clin Exp Allergy 2004;34:1237-42.
47. Dunstan JA, Simmer K, Dixon G, Prescott SL. Cognitive assessment at 2 1/2 years following fish oil supplementation in pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2008;93(1):F45-50.
48. Engstrom K, Wallin R, Saldeen T. Effect of low-dose aspirin in combination with stable fish oil on whole blood production of eicosanoids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2001;64:291-7.
49. Eritsland J, Amesen H, Gronseth K, et al. Effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids on coronary artery bypass graft patency. Am J Cardiol 1996;77:31-6.tr 1995;61:831-6.
50. Eritsland J, Seljeflot I, Abdelnoor M, et al. Long-term effects of n-3 fatty acids on serum lipids and glycaemic control. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1994;54:273-80.
51. Farmer A, Montori V, Dinneen S, Clar C. Fish oil in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;3:CD003205.
52. Feagan BG, Sandborn WJ, Mittmann U, et al. Omega-3 free fatty acids for the maintenance of remission in Crohn disease: the EPIC Randomized Controlled Trials. JAMA 2008;299:1690-7.
53. Fewtrell MS, Abbott RA, Kennedy K, et al. Randomized, double-blind trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation with fish oil and borage oil in preterm infants. J Pediatr 2004;144:471-9.
54. Finnegan YE, Howarth D, Minihane AM, et al. Plant and marine derived (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids do not affect blood coagulation and fibrinolytic factors in moderately hyperlipidemic humans. J Nutr 2003;133:2210-3.
55. Finnegan YE, Minihane AM, Leigh-Firbank EC, et al. Plant- and marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have differential effects on fasting and postprandial blood lipid concentrations and on the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:783-95.
56. Folsom AR, Demissie Z. Fish intake, marine omega-3 fatty acids, and mortality in a cohort of postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 2004;160:1005-10.
57. Foran JA, Carpenter DO, Hamilton MC, et al. Risk-based consumption advice for farmed Atlantic and wild Pacific salmon contaminated with dioxins and dioxin-like compounds. Environ Health Perspect 2005;113:552-6.
58. Foran SE, Flood JG, Lewandrowski KB. Measurement of mercury levels in concentrated over-the-counter fish oil preparations: is fish oil healthier than fish? Arch Pathol Lab Med 2003;127:1603-5.
59. Freund-Levi Y, Eriksdotter-Jonhagen M, Cederholm T, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid treatment in 174 patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: OmegAD study: a randomized double-blind trial. Arch Neurol 2006;63:1402-8.
60. Frost L, Vestergaard P. n-3 Fatty acids consumed from fish and risk of atrial fibrillation or flutter: the Danish Diet, Cancer, and Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:50-4.
61. Galan P, Kesse-Guyot E, Czernichow S, et al; SU.FOL.OM3 Collaborative Group. Effects of B vitamins and omega 3 fatty acids on cardiovascular diseases: a randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ 2010;341:c6273.
62. Gans RO, Bilo HJ, Weersink EG, et al. Fish oil supplementation in patients with stable claudication. Am J Surg 1990;160:490-5.
63. Gissi-HF Investigators; Tavazzi L, Maggioni AP, Marchioli R, et al. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2008;372:1223-30.
64. Goldberg RJ, Katz J. A meta-analysis of the analgesic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation for inflammatory joint pain. Pain 2007;129:210-23.
65. Goodfellow J, Bellamy MF, Ramsey MW, et al. Dietary supplementation with marine omega-3 fatty acids improve systemic large artery endothelial function in subjects with hypercholesterolemia. (abstract) J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35:265-70.
66. Greenfield SM, Green AT, Teare JP, et al. A randomized controlled study of evening primrose oil and fish oil in ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1993;7:159-66.
67. Hardman WE. (n-3) fatty acids and cancer therapy. J Nutr 2004;134:3427S-30S.
68. Harel Z, Biro FM, Kottenhahn RK, Rosenthal SL. Supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the management of dysmenorrhea in adolescents. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1335-8.
69. Harel Z, Gascon G, Riggs S, et al. Supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the management of recurrent migraines in adolescents. J Adolesc Health 2002;31:154-61.
70. Harris WS. Fish oil supplementation: evidence for health benefits. Cleve Clin J Med 2004;71:208-10, 212, 215-8 passim.
71. Harris WS. n-3 fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65:1645S-54S.
72. Hatzitolios A, Savopoulos C, Lazaraki G, et al. Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids, atorvastatin and orlistat in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease with dyslipidemia. Indian J Gastroenterol 2004;23:131-4.
73. He K, Daviglus ML. A few more thoughts about fish and fish oil. J Am Diet Assoc 2005;105:350-1.
74. Healy E, Newell L, Howarth P, Friedmann PS. Control of salicylate intolerance with fish oils. Br J Dermatol 2008;159:1368-9.
75. Hibbeln JR, Davis JM, Steer C, et al. Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): an observational cohort study. Lancet 2007;369:578-85.
76. Higdon JV, Du SH, Lee YS, et al. Supplementation of postmenopausal women with fish oil does not increase overall oxidation of LDL ex vivo compared to dietary oils rich in oleate and linoleate. J Lipid Res 2001;42:407-18.
77. Higdon JV, Liu J, Du S, et al. Supplementation of postmenopausal women with fish oil rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid is not associated with greater in vivo lipid peroxidation compared with oils rich in oleate and linoleate as assessed by plasma malondialdehyde and F(2)- isoprostanes. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:714-22.
78. Higgins S, McCarthy SN, Corridan BM, et al. Measurement of free cholesterol, cholesteryl esters and cholesteryl linoleate hydroperoxide in copper-oxidised low density lipoprotein in healthy volunteers supplemented with a low dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Nutr Res 2000;20:1091-102.
79. Hill AM, Buckley JD, Murphy KJ, Howe PR. Combining fish-oil supplements with regular aerobic exercise improves body composition and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85:1267-74.
80. Hjerkinn EM, Seljeflot I, Ellingsen I, et al. Influence of long-term intervention with dietary counseling, long-chain n-3 fatty acid supplements, or both on circulating markers of endothelial activation in men with long-standing hyperlipidemia. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:583-9.
81. Holub BJ. Clinical nutrition: 4. Omega-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular care. CMAJ 2002:166:608-15.
82. Hooper L, Thompson RL, Harrison RA, et al. Omega 3 fatty acids for prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(4):CD003177.
83. Hsu HC, Lee YT, Chen MF. Effect of n-3 fatty acids on the composition and binding properties of lipoproteins in hypertriglyceridemic patients. (abstract) Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:28-35.
84. Hu FB, Manson JE. Omega-3 fatty acids and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease - Is it just a fish tale? Arch Intern Med 2012;172:694-6
85. Iso H, Rexrode KM, Stampfer MJ, et al. Intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids and risk of stroke in women. JAMA 2001;285:304-12.
86. Israel DH, Gorlin R. Fish oils in the prevention of atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992;19:174-85.
87. Ito Y, Suzuki K, Imai H, et al. Effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids on atrophic gastritis in a Japanese population. Cancer Lett 2001;163:171-8.
88. Jenkins DJ, Josse AR, Beyene J, et al. Fish-oil supplementation in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators: a meta-analysis. CMAJ 2008;178:157-64.
89. Jones WL, Kaiser SP. Pilot study; an emulsified fish oil supplement can significantly improve C-reactive protein, hemoglobin, albumin and urine output in chronic hemodialysis volunteers. JANA 2002;5:46-50.
90. Kelley DS, Rudolph IL. Effect of individual fatty acids of omega-6 and omega-3 type on human immune status and role of eicosanoids. Nutrition 2000;16:143-5.
91. Khawaja O, Gaziano JM, Djoussé L. A meta-analysis of omega-3 fatty acids and incidence of atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Nutr 2012;31:4-13.
92. Kinrys G. Hypomania associated with omega3 fatty acids. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000;57:715-6.
93. Kojima M, Wakai K, Tokudome S, et al. Serum levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of colorectal cancer: a prospective study. Am J Epidemiol 2005;161:462-71.
94. Kremmyda LS, Vlachava M, Noakes PS, et al. Atopy risk in infants and children in relation to early exposure to fish, oily fish, or long-chain omega-3 fatty acids: a systematic review. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2011;41:36-66.
95. Kris-Ehterton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ, et al. Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2002;106:2747-57.
96. Kromhout D, Giltay EJ, Geleijnse JM; Alpha Omega Trial Group. n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2010;363:2015-26.
97. Kruger MC, Coetzer H, de Winter R, et al. Calcium, gamma-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid supplementation in senile osteoporosis. Aging (Milano) 1998;10:385-94.
98. Kwak SM, Myung SK, Lee YJ, Seo HG. Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplements (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 2012;172:686-94.
99. Lacaille B, Julien P, Deshaies Y, et al. Responses of plasma lipoproteins and sex hormones to the consumption of lean fish incorporated in a prudent-type diet in normolipidemic men. J Am Coll Nutr 2000;19:745-53.
100. Larsson SC, Kumlin M, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Wolk A. Dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids for the prevention of cancer: a review of potential mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:935-45.
101. Lauritzen L, Hoppe C, Straarup EM, Michaelsen KF. Maternal fish oil supplementation in lactation and growth during the first 2.5 years of life. Pediatr Res 2005;58:235-42.
102. Lauritzen L, Jorgensen MH, Mikkelsen TB, et al. Maternal fish oil supplementation in lactation: effect on visual acuity and n-3 fatty acid content of infant erythrocytes. Lipids 2004;39:195-206.
103. Laviano A, Muscaritoli M, Rossi-Fanelli F. Phase II study of high-dose fish oil capsules for patients with cancer-related cachexia: a Cancer and Leukemia Group B study. Cancer 2005;103:651-2.
104. Leaf A, Albert CM, Josephson M, et al. Prevention of fatal arrhythmias in high-risk subjects by fish oil n-3 fatty acid intake. Circulation 2005;112:2762-8
105. Leaf A, Xiao YF, Kang JX, Billman GE. Prevention of sudden cardiac death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Pharmacol Ther 2003;98:355-77.
106. LLemaitre RN, King IB, Mozaffarian D, et al. n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, fatal ischemic heart disease, and nonfatal myocardial infarction in older adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:319-25.
107. Lenn J, Uhl T, Mattacola C, et al. The effects of fish oil and isoflavones on delayed onset muscle soreness. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002;34:1605-13.
108. Lovegrove JA, Lovegrove SS, Lesauvage SV, et al. Moderate fish-oil supplementation reverses low-platelet, long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid status and reduces plasma triacylglycerol concentrations in British Indo-Asians. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:974-82.
109. Lu M, Cho E, Taylor A, et al. Prospective Study of Dietary Fat and Risk of Cataract Extraction among US Women. Am J Epidemiol 2005;161:948-59.
110. MacLean CH, Newberry SJ, Mojica WJ, et al. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on cancer risk: a systematic review. JAMA 2006;295:403-15.
111. Madsen T, Christensen JH, Blom M, Schmidt EB. The effect of dietary n-3 acids on serum concentrations of C-reactive protein: a dose-response study. Br J Nutr 2003;89:517-22.
112. Malinowski JM, Metka K. Elevation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration with over-the-counter fish oil supplementation. Ann Pharmacother 2007;41:1296-300.
113. Mayser P, Mrowietz U, Arenberger P, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid-based lipid infusion in patients with chronic plaque psoriasis: results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;38:539-47.
114. McKenney JM, Sica D. Prescription omega-3 fatty acids for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2007;64:595-605.
115. McKenney JM, Swearingen D, Di Spirito M, et al. Study of the pharmacokinetic interaction between simvastatin and prescription omega-3-acid ethyl esters. J Clin Pharmacol 2006;46:785-91.
116. Meier R, Wettstein A, Drewe J, et al. Fish oil (Eicosapen) is less effective than metronidazole, in combination with pantoprazole and clarithromycin, for Helicobacter pylori eradication. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001;15:851-5.
117. Melanson SF, Lewandrowski EL, Flood JG, Lewandrowski KB. Measurement of organochlorines in commercial over-the-counter fish oil preparations: implications for dietary and therapeutic recommendations for omega-3 fatty acids and a review of the literature. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2005;129:74-7.
118. Meydani SN, Dinarello CA. Influence of dietary fatty acids on cytokine production and its clinical implications. Nutr Clin Pract 1993;8:65-72.
119. Miljanovic B, Trivedi KA, Dana MR, et al. Relation between dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and clinically diagnosed dry eye syndrome in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82:887-93.
120. Minihane AM, Khan S, Leigh-Firbank EC, et al. ApoE polymorphism and fish oil supplementation in subjects with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:1990-7.
121. Montori VM, Farmer A, Wollan PC, Dinneen SF. Fish oil supplementation in type 2 diabetes: a quantitative systemic review (abstract). Diabetes Care 2000;23:1407-15.
122. Morcos NC. Modulation of lipid profile by fish oil and garlic combination. J Natl Med Assoc 1997;89:673-8.
123. Mori TA, Bao DQ, Burke V, et al. Dietary fish as a major component of a weight-loss diet: effect on serum lipids, glucose, and insulin metabolism in overweight hypertensive subjects (abstract). Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70:817-25.
124. Moriguchi T, Greiner RS, Salem N Jr. Behavioral deficits associated with dietary induction of decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid concentration. J Neurochem 2000;75:2563-73.
125. Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, et al. Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003;60:940-6.
126. Mozaffarian D, Geelen A, Brouwer IA, et al. Effect of fish oil on heart rate in humans: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Circulation 2005;112:1945-52.
127. Mozaffarian D, Lemaitre RN, Kuller LH, et al. Cardiac benefits of fish consumption may depend on the type of fish meal consumed: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation 2003;107:1372-7.
128. Mozaffarian D, Longstreth WT Jr, Lemaitre RN, et al. Fish consumption and stroke risk in elderly individuals: the cardiovascular health study. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:200-6.
129. Mozaffarian D, Psaty BM, Rimm EB, et al. Fish intake and risk of incident atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2004;110:368-73.
130. Navarro E, Esteve M, Olive A, et al. Abnormal fatty acid pattern in rheumatoid arthritis. A rationale for treatment with marine and botanical lipids. J Rheumatol 2000;27:298-303.
131. Nestel PJ. Fish oil and cardiovascular disease: lipids and arterial function (abstract). Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:228S-31S.
132. Neuringer M, Reisbick S, Janowsky J. The role of n-3 fatty acids in visual and cognitive development: current evidence and methods of assessment. J Pediatr 1994;125:S39-47.
133. Nilsen DW, Albrektsen G, Landmark K, et al. Effects of a high-dose concentrate of n-3 fatty acids or corn oil introduced early after an acute myocardial infarction on serum triacylglycerol and HDL cholesterol. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:50-6.
134. Ogilvie GK, Fettman MJ, Mallinckrodt CH, et al. Effect of fish oil, arginine, and doxorubicin chemotherapy on remission and survival time for dogs with lymphoma: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Cancer 2000;88:1916-28.
135. Oh K, Willett WC, Fuchs CS, Giovannucci E. Dietary marine n-3 fatty acids in relation to risk of distal colorectal adenoma in women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:835-41.
136. Olsen SF, Secher NJ, Tabor A, et al. Randomised clinical trials of fish oil supplementation in high risk pregnancies. Fish Oil Trials In Pregnancy (FOTIP) Team. BJOG 2000;107:382-95.
137. Olsen SF, Sorensen JD, Secher NJ, et al. Randomised controlled trial of effect of fish-oil supplementation on pregnancy duration. Lancet 1992;339:1003-7.
138. Onwude JL, Lilford RJ, Hjartardottir H, et al. A randomised double blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:95-100.
139. Patti L, Maffettone A, Iovine C, et al. Long-term effects of fish oil on lipoprotein subfractions and low density lipoprotein size in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Atherosclerosis 1999;146:361-7.
140. Pawlosky RJ, Hibbeln JR, Lin Y, et al. Effects of beef- and fish-based diets on the kinetics of n-3 fatty acid metabolism in human subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:565-72.
141. Peat JK, Mihrshahi S, Kemp AS, et al. Three-year outcomes of dietary fatty acid modification and house dust mite reduction in the Childhood Asthma Prevention Study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004;114:807-13.
142. Pedersen HS, Mulvad G, Seidelin KN, et al. N-3 fatty acids as a risk factor for haemorrhagic stroke. Lancet 1999;353:812-3.
143. Pradalier A, Baudesson G, Delage A, et al. Failure of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in prevention of migraine: a double-blind study versus placebo. Cephalalgia 2001;21:818-22.
144. Prisco D, Paniccia R, Bandinelli B, et al. Effect of medium-term supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure in mild hypertensive patients. Thromb Res 1998;1:105-12.
145. Raitt M, Connor W, Morris C, et al. Antiarrhythmic effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in survivors of ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Circulation 2003;108:1.
146. Raitt MH, Connor WE, Morris C, et al. Fish oil supplementation and risk of ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation in patients with implantable defibrillators: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005;293:2884-91.
147. Rauch B, Schiele R, Schneider S, et al. OMEGA, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial to test the effect of highly purified omega-3 fatty acids on top of modern guideline-adjusted therapy after myocardial infarction. Circulation 2010;122:2152-9.
148. Reddy BS. Omega-3 fatty acids in colorectal cancer prevention. Int J Cancer 2004;112:1-7.
149. Reliant Pharmaceuticals. Omacor package insert. Liberty Corner, NJ; December, 2004.
150. Richardson AJ, Montgomery P. The Oxford-Durham study: a randomized, controlled trial of dietary supplementation with fatty acids in children with developmental coordination disorder. Pediatrics 2005;115:1360-6.
151. Richardson AJ, Puri BK. A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of supplementation with highly unsaturated fatty acids on ADHD-related symptoms in children with specific learning difficulties. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002;26:233-9.
152. Roche HM, Gibney MJ. Effect of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on fasting and postprandial triacylglycerol metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:232S-7S.
153. Rossi E, Costa M. Fish oil derivatives as a prophylaxis of recurrent miscarriage associated with antiphospholipid antibodies (APL): a pilot study. Lupus 1993;2:319-23.
154. Sacks FM, Stone PH, Gibson CM, et al. Controlled trial of fish oil for regression of human coronary atherosclerosis. HARP Res Group. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;25:1492-8.
155. Sagar PS, Das UN, Koratkar R, et al. Cytotoxic action of cis-unsaturated fatty acids on human cervical carcinoma (HeLa) cells: relationship to free radicals and lipid peroxidation and its modulation by calmodulin antagonists. Cancer Lett 1992;63:189-98.
156. Salonen JT, Seppanen K, Nyyssonen K, et al. Intake of mercury from fish, lipid peroxidation, and the risk of myocardial infarction and coronary, cardiovascular, and any death in eastern Finnish men. Circulation 1995;91:645-55.
157. Schmitz PG, McCloud LK, Reikes ST, et al. Prophylaxis of hemodialysis graft thrombosis with fish oil: double-blind, randomized, prospective trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002;13:184-90.
158. Schoene NW. Vitamin E and omega-3 fatty acids: effectors of platelet responsiveness. Nutrition 2001;17:793-6.
159. Schrepf R, Limmert T, Claus Weber P, et al. Immediate effects of n-3 fatty acid infusion on the induction of sustained ventricular tachycardia. Lancet 2004;363:1441-2.
160. Schubert R, Kitz R, Beermann C, et al. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in asthma after low-dose allergen challenge. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2009;148:321-9.
161. Seidner DL, Lashner BA, Brzezinski A, et al. An oral supplement enriched with fish oil, soluble fiber, and antioxidants for corticosteroid sparing in ulcerative colitis: a randomized, controlled trial. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;3:358-69.
162. Sinn N, Bryan J. Effect of Supplementation with Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Micronutrients on Learning and Behavior Problems Associated with Child ADHD. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2007;28:82-91.
163. Sirtori CR, Crepaldi G, Manzato E, et al. One-year treatment with ethyl esters of n-3 fatty acids in patients with hypertriglyceridemia and glucose intolerance: reduced triglyceridemia, total cholesterol and increased HDL-C without glycemic alterations. Atherosclerosis 1998;137:419-27.
164. Smith W, Mitchell P, Leeder SR. Dietary fat and fish intake and age-related maculopathy (abstract). Arch Ophthalmol 2000;118:401-4.
165. Sorensen JD, Olsen SF, Pedersen AK, et al. Effects of fish oil supplementation in the third trimester of pregnancy on prostacyclin and thromboxane production. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:915-22.
166. Soyland E, Funk J, Rajka G, et al. Effect of dietary supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids in patients with psoriasis. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1812-6.
167. Stark KD, Park EJ, Maines VA, Holub BJ. Effect of a fish-oil concentrate on serum lipids in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy in a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:389-94.
168. Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP, et al. Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:407-12.
169. Stordy BJ. Dark adaptation, motor skills, docosahexaenoic acid, and dyslexia. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:323S-6S.
170. Studer M, Briel M, Leimenstoll B, et al. Effect of different antilipidemic agents and diets on mortality: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:725-30.
171. Su KP, Huang SY, Chiu CC, Shen WW. Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2003;13:267-71.
172. Su KP, Shen WW, Huang SY. Are omega3 fatty acids beneficial in depression but not mania? Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000;57:716-7.
173. Su KP, Shen WW, Huang SY. Omega-3 fatty acids as a psychotherapeutic agent for a pregnant schizophrenic patient. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2001;11:295-9.
174. Suzukawa M, Abbey M, Howe PR, Nestel PJ. Effects of fish oil fatty acids on low density lipoprotein size, oxidizability, and uptake by macrophages. J Lipid Res 1995;36:473-84.
175. Svaneborg N, Kristensen SD, Hansen LM, et al. The acute and short-time effect of supplementation with the combination of n-3 fatty acids and acetylsalicylic acid on platelet function and plasma lipids. Thromb Res 2002;105:311-6.
176. Tanskanen A, Hibbeln JR, Hintikka J, et al. Fish consumption, depression, and suicidality in a general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:512-513.
177. Tavani A, Pelucchi C, Parpinel M, et al. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake and cancer risk in Italy and Switzerland. Int J Cancer 2003;105:113-116.
178. Terry P, Wolk A, Vainio H, Weiderpass E. Fatty fish consumption lowers the risk of endometrial cancer: a nationwide case-control study in Sweden. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002;11:143-5.
179. Terry PD, Rohan TE, Wolk A. Intakes of fish and marine fatty acids and the risks of cancers of the breast and prostate and of other hormone-related cancers: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:532-43.
180. Thorsdottir I, Birgisdottir BE, Halldorsdottir S, Geirsson RT. Association of fish and fish liver oil intake in pregnancy with infant size at birth among women of normal weight before pregnancy in a fishing community. Am J Epidemiol 2004;160:460-5
181. Tiemeier H, van Tuijl HR, Hofman A, et al. Plasma fatty acid composition and depression are associated in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78:40-6.
182. Toft I, Bonaa KH, Ingebretsen OC, et al. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on glucose homeostasis and blood pressure in essential hypertension. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:911-8.
183. US Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Seafood. Mercury levels in seafood species. Available at: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/sea-mehg.html.
184. van Dam M, Stalenhoef AFH, Wittekoek J. Efficacy of concentrated n-3 fatty acids in hypertriglyceridaemia: a comparison with gemfibrozil. Clin Drug Invest 2001;21:175-81.
185. van Gelder BM, Tijhuis M, Kalmijn S, Kromhout D. Fish consumption, n-3 fatty acids, and subsequent 5-y cognitive decline in elderly men: the Zutphen Elderly Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85:1142-7.
186. van Gool CJ, Zeegers MP, Thijs C. Oral essential fatty acid supplementation in atopic dermatitis-a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. Br J Dermatol 2004;150:728-40.
187. Vandongen R, Mori TA, Burke V, et al. Effects on blood pressure of omega 3 fats in subjects at increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Hypertension 1993;22:371-9.
188. Wainwright P. Nutrition and behaviour: the role of n-3 fatty acids in cognitive function. Br J Nutr 2000;83:337-9.
189. Wallace JM, McCabe AJ, Roche HM, et al. The effect of low-dose fish oil supplementation on serum growth factors in healthy humans. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54:690-4.
190. Wang C, Chung M, Lichtenstein A, et al. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular disease. Evid Rep Technol Assess (Summ) 2004 Mar;(94):1-8.
191. Warren G, McKendrick M, Peet M. The role of essential fatty acids in chronic fatigue syndrome. A case-controlled study of red-cell membrane essential fatty acids (EFA) and a placebo-controlled treatment study with high dose of EFA. Acta Neurol Scand 1999;99:112-6.
192. Weiss LA, Barrett-Connor E, von Muhlen D. Ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids and bone mineral density in older adults: the Rancho Bernardo Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81:934-8.
193. Whalley LJ, Fox HC, Wahle KW, et al. Cognitive aging, childhood intelligence, and the use of food supplements: possible involvement of n-3 fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1650-70.
194. Wong KW. Clinical efficacy of n-3 fatty acid supplementation in patients with asthma. J Am Diet Assoc 2005;105:98-105.
195. Woods RK, Thien FC, Abramson MJ. Dietary marine fatty acids (fish oil) for asthma in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002;(2):CD001283.
196. Yam D, Peled A, Shinitzky M. Suppression of tumor growth and metastasis by dietary fish oil combined with vitamins E and C and cisplatin. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2001;47:34-40.
197. Yzebe D, Lievre M. Fish oils in the care of coronary heart disease patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2004;18:581-92.